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Today’s Episode:
The Formation of the English Language
In the study of a new language, it is always interesting to understand the process of language formation. English, like every language, is actually the result of a long historical process and conglomeration of cultures. So, let’s talk about how the English we speak today came about.
Cultural influences
Languages are the result of a process of historical formation, in which a language is not formed solely and exclusively by the culture and or by the rules of a single country. Historical and colonization processes are factors that directly influence the inclusion or exclusion of words, accents, and correct pronunciation of the words of a given language. With English, the greatest influences come from Celtic, Roman and Anglo-Saxon influences. Note the term, “major influences”. This means that other tribes also influenced the English language, but in this article, we will focus on the main historical contexts.
England’s history began with the Celts. Indo-European languages, responsible for the creation of several different language groups, date back to around 1000 B.C. It is assumed that the Celts were a people with origins in the Bronze Age population in Europe. They inhabited regions that are now known as Germany, Spain, France and England. This group came to be recognized as containing the main group of languages in Europe, but they were partially assimilated by the Roman Empire.
With regard to the Romans, a people well known for the formation of the Roman Empire, they enter history from 54 B.C., when the first invasions occurred, under the command of Julius Caesar. At the time of Emperor Claudius, in the context of the third invasion, when the main British island was annexed to the Roman Empire, reaching the limits of Caledonia, present-day Scotland. This fact made Latin begin to exert a strong influence on Celtic-Breton culture. With the subsequent three centuries of influence, the presence of Roman culture generated changes in the political, social and economic structure of the Celtic tribes in Great Britain. This impacted the English language.
Regarding the Anglo-Saxons, these were people who exerted an almost decisive influence on the formation of English culture, as it is today. Rome faced difficulties and withdrew from Britannia, leaving the Celts totally exposed and without military protection. The Celts had to resort to asking for help from the Germanic tribes, Jutes, Angles, Saxons and Frisians. Ultimately, the Celts were invaded, especially in southeastern Britain. In that period, there were almost no traces of the Celtic language in English, which proves the violence in the invasion of local culture. The second half of the 5th century, when Germanic invasions occurred, was marked by the Old English period.
Thus, it was from that period that history was divided into three main historical moments: Old English, Middle English and Modern English. Therefore, it is possible to perceive that the process of formation of the English language passed through many centuries, generations, cultures, contexts and different peoples. English acquired different words, accents, origins and pronunciation, all which have contributed to the enrichment of English language vocabulary.
Let’s talk a little more about the three main historical moments in the English language.
Old English (mid-5th to 12th century): It is also known as Anglo-Saxon. When compared to modern English, it is a very different language, both in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. If compared to the English phases, it has a correlation with modern English.
Middle English (1100 – 1500): Period marked by the influence of the French language in English. A mixture of Franco-Norman culture in the Anglo-Saxon nation, which lasted three centuries. This influence was not limited only to vocabulary, but to the design of furniture and part of the culture of English speakers. documents. At that same time, there was also a gradual loss of declension, due to the neutralization and loss of atonic vowels at the end of words, as well as the beginning of the Great Vowel Shift, which was a change in the pronunciation of vowels, mainly during the 15th and 18th centuries. 16. Most of the vowel sounds, including diphthongs, have changed and some consonants are no longer pronounced.
Modern English (from 1500): The previous period was characterized by the diversity of dialects, while Modern English represented a period of standardization and unification of the language. This period is also marked by the advent of the press in 1475 and the creation of a postal system in 1516 that made it possible to spread the London dialect, which was the political, social and economic center of England. This made the popularization of printed materials available, which encouraged education, bringing the possibility of literacy to the middle class.
The following are examples of words that have changed over the “Old English” and “Middle English” periods:
Old English
Examples of nouns: andsaca – enemy; beorn – man ; brim – ocean ; casere – emperor ; deofol – devil; fæder – father ; ides – woman ; lufu – love ; lyft – sky, wind ; man – crime ; neorxnawang – paradise ; sawol – soul ; sweostor – sister ; woruld – world.
Examples of adverbs: arleas – dishonorable ; ariht – right, properly ; atelic – horrible, awful ; beorht – bright ; bysig – busy ; ceald – cold ; dyre – dear, lovely ; fæger – beautiful, fair ; nu – now ; rice – powerful ; til – good ; wlanc – proud.
Examples of verbs: acennan – to give birth ; acwellan – to kill ; clipian – to call ; dreogan – to suffer ; forhtian – to fear ; offrian – to offer ; onginnan – to begin ; swincan – to struggle ; witan – to know ; writan – to write.
Middle English
Common Middle English Examples: Al be that – Although ; Anon – At once; at another time ; Bet – Better ; Cas – Happening now; chance ; Echo – Each one ; Forthy – Therefore ; Ich – I ; Lite – Little ; Nat – Not ; Tho – Those; then ; Ynogh – Enough
That is a quick overview of how we landed on our current version in English. It’s very interesting, isn’t it? Now that you know more about the background of the language you are studying, it’s time to get better at speaking English!
Click on one of the following links to start speaking clearer English!
1) Clear English Pronunciation Video Course
2) English Vocabulary – Audio Files & PDF – TOEFL & IELTS
3) Idioms in Conversation
4) Jumpstart Your English Audiobook + eBook
Sources:
https://www.sk.com.br/sk-historia-da-lingua-inglesa.html
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingl%C3%AAs_moderno
https://reference.yourdictionary.com/dictionaries/old-english-words-and-modern-meanings.html
Until next time, Happy Learning!
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Jhessika Nascimento
Director of International Partnerships
Jhessika Nascimento is the Director of International Partnerships for Study With Andrea and lives in Brasilia, Brazil.
Jhessika is a bilingual teacher of English and Portuguese, studying for a Master's Degree in Strategic Management in Information Technologies at the Universidad Internacional Iberoamericana.
Graduation in Letters - Portuguese and English.
Postgraduate in Teaching in Higher Education.
Postgraduate in Risk Management and Cybersecurity.
Postgraduate Executive MBA in Process Management BPM-CBOK.
Postgraduate in Translation and Proofreading of Texts in English.
The following is a TOEFL Reading practice test to help you prepare for the Reading section of the TOEFL test.
Instructions: Read the sample passage below and then answer the questions that follow.
TOEFL Reading Practice Passage
Gorillas are ground-dwelling, predominantly herbivorous apes that inhabit the forest of central Sub-Saharan Africa. The genus Gorilla is divided into two species: the eastern gorillas and the western gorillas (both critically endangered), and either four or five subspecies. They are the largest living primates. The DNA of gorillas is highly similar to that of humans, from 95 to 99% depending on what is included, and they are the next closest living relatives to humans after the chimpanzees and bonobos.
Gorillas' natural habitats cover tropical or subtropical forest in Sub-Saharan Africa. Although their range covers a small percentage of Sub-Saharan Africa, gorillas cover a wide range of elevations. The mountain gorilla inhabits the Albertine Rift montane cloud forests of the Virunga Volcanoes, ranging in altitude from 2,200 to 4,300 metres (7,200 to 14,100 ft). Lowland gorillas live in dense forests and lowland swamps and marshes as low as sea level, with western lowland gorillas living in Central West African countries and eastern lowland gorillas living in the Democratic Republic of the Congo near its border with Rwanda.
(#1) Gorillas move around by knuckle-walking, although they sometimes walk upright for short distances, typically while carrying food or in defensive situations. (#2) A 2018 study investigating the hand posture of 77 mountain gorillas at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (8% of the population) found that knuckle walking was done only 60% of the time, and they also supported their weight on their fists, the backs of their hands/feet, and on their palms/soles (with the digits flexed). (#3) Studies of gorilla handedness have yielded varying results, with some arguing for no preference for either hand, and others right-hand dominance for the general population. (#4)
The eastern gorilla is more darkly colored than the western gorilla, with the mountain gorilla being the darkest of all. The mountain gorilla also has the thickest hair. The western lowland gorilla can be brown or grayish with a reddish forehead. In addition, gorillas that live in lowland forest are more slender and agile than the more bulky mountain gorillas. The eastern gorilla also has a longer face and broader chest than the western gorilla. Like humans, gorillas have individual fingerprints. Their eye color is dark brown, framed by a black ring around the iris. Gorilla facial structure is described as mandibular prognathism, that is, the mandible protrudes farther out than the maxilla. Adult males also have a prominent sagittal crest.
A gorilla's lifespan is normally between 35 and 40 years, although zoo gorillas may live for 50 years or more. Colo, a female western gorilla at the Columbus Zoo and Aquarium, was the oldest known gorilla at 60 years of age when she died on 17 January 2017.
Questions
1. According to the passage, gorillas can live in
a. a variety of altitudes.
b. several different countries in Africa.
c. thick forests.
d. lowland forests only.
2. All of the following is true about gorillas EXCEPT
a. they primarily eat smaller animals.
b. they live in a forest habitat.
c. their genetics are similar to humans.
d. their diet consists of vegetation.
3. Look at the word predominantly in paragraph 1. The word predominantly in this passage refers to
a. impulsively
b. unfortunately
c. mainly
d. lastly
4. Look at the word inhabits in paragraph 2. The word inhabits in this passage refers to
a. lives in
b. protects
c. goes
d. works
5. The author implies that
a. most gorillas prefer using their left hand over their right.
b. gorillas rarely walk on their knuckles.
c. gorillas regularly walk upright for long distances.
d. studies haven't solidly proven which hand gorillas prefer using.
6. Why does the writer mention that the eastern gorilla also has a longer face and broader chest than the western gorilla?
a. To validate the importance a broad chest in western gorillas
b. To define the meaning of "broad"
c. To highlight a physical difference between types of gorillas
d. To demonstrate that most gorillas are identical in physical build
7. Which of the following statements is true for BOTH eastern and western gorillas.
a. Both eastern and western gorrilas are brown with red foreheads.
b. Both eastern and western gorrilas have unique fingerprints.
c. Both eastern and western gorrilas have thin hair.
d. Both eastern and western gorrilas have light brown eyes.
8. In Paragraph 3, look at the four numbers (#1, #2, #3, #4) that indicate where the following sentence would be added to the passage.
Such a range of hand postures was previously thought to have been used by only orangutans.
Where would the sentence best fit?
(View all the correct answers below.)
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Answers: 1. d 2. a 3. c 4. a 5. d 6. c 7. b 8. #3
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